Carbon Taxes and Carbon Emissions Trading

This paper surveys the literature on, and examples of current implementation of, carbon taxes and carbon emission permits. It sets out the theoretical basis for these instruments, with special reference to the revenue‐recycling and tax interaction effects. This theoretical work concludes that instruments which raise revenue which can be recycled so as to reduce pre‐existing distortionary taxes are significantly less costly than those which do not. The paper then reviews the sizable literature on the distributional effects of these instruments, especially with regard to industrial competitiveness and regressive effects on low‐income groups, evaluating attempts to mitigate these where they are perceived as unacceptable. The paper concludes that such efforts at mitigation, while possible, can substantially reduce the efficiency benefits of the instruments. The projected costs of carbon taxes depend on a wide range of assumptions. This is still a contested area, but the paper concludes that, on a range of plausible assumptions, these costs need not be high. Finally the paper notes that early evaluations of the environmental effectiveness of carbon taxes have been generally positive. This suggests that, if concern about anthropogenic climate change continues to increase, more countries will introduce carbon taxes and emission permits, with the latter increasingly auctioned.     

Neutral carbon tax and environmental targets in Brazil

We evaluate the effects of a carbon tax in the Brazilian economy using an input–output framework. First, we consider the impacts of a carbon tax of US$ 10 and US$ 50/metric ton of CO₂ equivalent. As usual, the adoption of the carbon tax generates adverse effects on GDP, wages and jobs in the short term, but reduces emissions and generates new government revenues, especially in the case of the greater tax. Second, we consider a broader tax system reform. In this reform, we replace distortionary taxes by a tax on value added. To compensate for the loss of government revenue, we assume a carbon tax with equivalent revenue. We find that the net effect is a GDP increase of 0.47%, the creation of 533 thousand jobs and reduction of 1.6 million tons of CO₂ emissions. Both scenarios exempt exports and levy imports to correct adverse effects on the country’s competitiveness.     

欠发达地区低碳城市建设水平评估指标体系研究

从我国欠发达地区建设低碳城市面临的挑战出发,运用DPSIR模型,从驱动力、压力、状态、影响以及响应5个方面构建了一套由23项指标组成的评估体系,并应用该指标体系对典型低碳试点城市贵阳进行了测算。结果表明,2008-2012年贵阳的低碳城市建设水平呈上升趋势。未来欠发达地区可以从加强“碳中和”、统筹低碳城市规划、加大低碳生活理念宣传力度等方面推进低碳城市建设。     

碳足迹概念、特征、内容框架与标准规范

碳足迹作为温室气体排放测度指标,其重要性愈显突出,引起了诸多学者与组织机构关注。通过归纳分析学者与组织机构相关研究,明晰碳足迹定义。以生命周期评价为切入点,将其特征归纳为目的性、完整性、一致性、透明性、准确性和可操作性。根据学者与组织机构的研究将其内容框架梳理为11点,并与生命周期评价4个阶段形成对应关系。将出台的碳足迹标准规范归纳为地域、企业和产品3大类,并对各类标准规范的主要内容进行比较分析。最后,对后续研究重点进行了展望。     

连续监测方法在全国碳市场应用的挑战与对策

全国碳市场启动在即,探索适合的碳排放量化方法具有重要现实意义。本文介绍了国内外连续监测方法的应用现状,比较分析了基于核算的方法与基于连续监测的方法的优缺点,剖析了在我国碳市场中应用连续监测方法面临的问题和挑战。本文建议在推广连续监测方法之前,需要选取试点设施获取实际应用经验,建立监测、报告、核查和认证等一系列配套的支撑体系,并解决与传统污染物监测设备的一致性问题以及与核算方法确定的历史排放数据的一致性问题。     

低碳转型下的技术发展路径选择

通过建立一个内生技术变化的优化模型,考察了在不确定的技术学习、确定性的技术学习以及不确定的碳税3种情况下,向低碳经济转型的技术发展路径选择问题。研究表明,通过选择适当的技术发展路径,可以有效减少减排成本和碳排放,实现向低碳经济转型。技术学习是产生这种最优技术发展路径的关键因素,技术学习的不确定性会扩大不同技术发展路径之间的差异,而不确定的碳税则缩小了这些技术发展路径的差异。     

Energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon emissions: Challenges faced by an EU candidate member

This paper investigates the long run Granger causality relationship between economic growth, carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption in Turkey, controlling for gross fixed capital formation and labor. The most interesting result is that carbon emissions seem to Granger cause energy consumption, but the reverse is not true. The lack of a long run causal link between income and emissions may be implying that to reduce carbon emissions, Turkey does not have to forgo economic growth.     

A review of recent multi-region input-output models used for consumption-based emission and resource accounting

The interest in consumption-based emission and resource accounting has grown significantly. Many studies juxtapose consumer emissions (carbon footprint) and producer (territorial) emissions of greenhouse gases in order to demonstrate the effects of trade on the national emission budget. To this end, a respectable number of studies have been undertaken worldwide in order to estimate emissions embedded in international trade of numerous countries and world regions. Input-output approaches, and increasingly multi-region input-output (MRIO) models, are commonly chosen as they provide an appropriate methodological framework for complete carbon footprint estimates at the national and supra-national level. With increasing processing capabilities of computers and a wider availability of economic accounts, environmental accounts and trade data such models are now being implemented on a wide scale.After a brief overview of salient single-region input-output studies I provide an in-depth review of the most recent multi-region input-output models used for the purpose of consumption-based environmental accounting. The main methodological features and important results are described for around twenty studies covering the years 2007 to 2009. This is followed by a detailed review of studies dealing with uncertainty in MRIO analysis, an area which has not received a lot of attention so far. I conclude that further research is mainly needed in two areas, a) improvements in data availability and quality and b) improvements in the accuracy of MRIO modelling.     

影响工业企业低碳生产意愿的主要因素研究:江苏省353个案例

二氧化碳排放主要来源于工业生产过程中消耗的化石能源。作为生产的主体,工业企业的低碳生产意愿将直接影响其生产行为并最终影响二氧化碳排放总量。利用带罚函数的Logistic回归模型,以工业化程度较高的江苏省353个工业企业为案例,分析影响企业低碳生产意愿的主要因素。研究发现,企业管理者、企业规模、技术创新行为等内部特征,以及企业产品是否出口、是否通过ISO14000系列环境管理认证和政府管制都显著影响工业企业的低碳生产意愿。基于对各种影响因素的分析,提出了相应的政策建议。     

碳关税对中国工业品出口的影响——基于可计算一般均衡模型的评估

碳关税政策作为一项边界调节机制,其目的是弥补因二氧化碳减排对本国生产的碳密集型产品的国际竞争力所造成的损失。碳关税政策违背《联合国气候变化框架公约》(UNFCCC)的基本原则和WTO的国民待遇原则,但可能适用WTO/GATT的一般例外条款。本文在分析中国工业品出口的隐含碳排放量的基础上,采用动态可计算一般均衡模型测算了碳关税对中国工业生产、出口和就业的可能影响。本文模型的评估结果表明,每吨碳30美元或60美元的关税率可能使中国工业部门的总产量下降0.62%～1.22%,使工业品出口量分别下降3.53%和6.95%,同时使工业部门的就业岗位减少1.22%和2.39%,而且以上冲击可能在5～7年甚至更长时期内产生持续影响。尤其值得注意的是,通常被认为不属于能源密集型或碳密集型行业的机械制造业出口和就业可能面临较大冲击。针对碳关税政策可能对中国工业生产、出口、就业等各方面发生的较为严重的冲击,本文提出了几条缓解碳关税冲击的应对策略,并提出了针对碳关税政策的反制性策略。